STUDY GUIDE

Crime & Delinquency in the United States

Study Guide

Siegel & Senna, Chapter Two

Between 1960 and 1981 crime skyrocketed from 3.3 million crimes reported to the police to 13.4 million crimes. After four years of decline (1981 to 1984), the rate went up in 1985 and continued to increase for the remainder of the decade. As the 1990’s began, the overall crime rate began to stabilize and decline. In 2000 the crime index total (Part I offenses) was 20% less than in 1990. FBI estimate that about 11.6 million serious crimes occurred in 2000, more than 4,000 per 100,000 inhabitants. Overall decline, but millions of crimes occur each year.

According to the FBI’s Uniform Crime Report (official statistics) for 2000, a total of about 14 million arrests were made. Of these, 2 million were for serious Part I crimes and 12 million for less serious Part II crimes. In 2000 juveniles were about 17% of all arrests. Juveniles accounted for about 28% of all index crimes (Part I – serious offenses).

Juveniles under the age of 18 are about 8% of the population, but are responsible for about 16% of violent crime arrests (65,000) and about 33% (345,000) of the property crime arrests.

The Uniform Crime Report - Official Statistics

2 million arrests of juveniles under 18 years of age (19% of all arrests)

560,000 juveniles arrested for Part I crimes

1.1 million juveniles arrested for Part II crimes

Part II arrests of juveniles (1.1 m) included:

93,000 for running away

101,000 for liquor law violations

106,000 for curfew violations

Property crime arrests peak at age 16; violent crime arrests peak at age 18. Crime rates begin to decline dramatically at age 24.

Juvenile Crime Trends

Arrests for violent juvenile crime began to increase in 1989, peaked in 1994, and then began to fall.

Juvenile murder rates doubled between 1980 and 1993, but they have since been in decline. More than 1700 youths were arrested for murder in 1997 and another 3800 for rape. But by 2000 the number arrested for murder had declined to about 806 and for rape to 2,937. A dramatic decline in juvenile violence!

The juvenile crime rate has been related to deep seated racial, gender, ethnic, and class conflict in American society, urban problems, economic deterioration, proliferation of weapons and drugs; growth of teenage gangs. In addition, more victims appear to be reporting crime to the police. Between 1987 and 1997 the number of youths arrested on weapons charges rose more than 100%.

Almost 15 million youth now live in poverty, and this figure is expected to increase over the next 15 years. The number of juveniles in the population will increase by 15 percent (9 million) between now and 2010. Those at high risk ages (15-17) will increase by more than 3 million, or 31 percent. There are 50 million school-age children in the US.

Self-Report Data

Delinquency is almost universal. Patterns of reported delinquency have remained stable since 1975, with the exception of assault. Property crime rates may actually be in decline. But self-report data do not include rape and murder.

According to 2000 self-report data from the University of Michigan’s Institute for Social Research, the most common juvenile offenses are: truancy, drinking alcohol, using a false ID, shoplifting or larceny under $50, fighting, using marijuana, and damaging the property of others.

12% hurt someone badly enough so victim required medical care

30 stole something worth less than $50

13% stole something worth more than $50

28% shoplifted

14% damaged school property

High school students commit 1.05 million armed robberies per year according to self-report data, but the UCR tallies 400,000 armed robberies for all age groups!

The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)

According to victims’ reports, approximately 25 million crimes occur annually in the US - crimes of violence (assault, rape, robbery) and household victimizations (burglary, larceny, motor vehicle theft). Victimization rates seem to be stable or declining for all categories of crime. The NCVS reveals that many crimes go unreported: more than 1/2 of violent crimes, 3/4 of personal crimes of theft, and 2/3 of household victimizations (burglary, larceny, vehicle theft).

The likelihood of victimization declines with age. Young teens are more than 20 times more likely to be the victim of a crime than people over age 65. The pattern holds for rape, aggravated assault, robbery.

Male teens have a significantly higher chance of victimization than female teens. African-American teenagers have a greater chance of becoming a victim of violent crime than white teenagers of the same age.

Youths tend to be victimized by their age group peers. In addition, most victimization is intraracial: black on black, white on white. Most teens are victimized by people they know or are acquainted with, and their victimization is more likely to occur during the day. Many victimizations occur at school.

80% of 12 year-olds in the US will become victims of violent crimes, 99% will experience theft, 40% will be injured during the course of the crime.

Gender and Delinquency

Official statistics suggest that males are significantly more criminal and delinquent than females. UCR data show that the teenage gender ratio for serious violent crime arrests is approximately 6 to 1, and for property crime approximately 2.5 to 1, male to female. However, the number and rate of female arrests have been increasing faster than that for males. Between 1990 and 2000, the number of arrests of males decreased about 3%, the number of females arrested increased almost 25%. The change in serious violent crime arrests was more striking: Male rates decreased 23% and female rates increased 28%.

Girls (58%) are more likely than boys (42%) to be arrested for being runaways.

Self-report data support that female delinquency is much higher than previously expected, and that the overall pattern of delinquency for males and females is quite similar. But males are still more likely to be “frequently delinquent” than females and more likely to engage in serious felony-type acts.

Racial and Ethnic Patterns

There are approximately 38 million white and 7.5 million African-American youths aged 5 - 17 in the US, a ratio of about 5:1. African-American youths are arrested for a disproportionate number of serious crimes (murder, rape, robbery, and assault), and white youths are arrested for a disproportionate share of arsons and alcohol-related offenses. However, self-report data indicate that the delinquent behavior of both groups is generally similar and that differences in arrest statistics may indicate a differential treatment policy by police and courts. Recent research reveals that poor male ethnic minorities are more likely to be arrested than white, female, and affluent suspects. Studies suggest that juvenile courts may punish minority youth more severely than white youths.

Social Class and Delinquency

Official delinquency data suggest that social class is a significant predictor of delinquency. Juvenile arrest rates are highest in areas that are economically deprived and socially disorganized. However, self-report studies found that socioeconomic class was related to official processing (chances of arrest and incarceration) by police, court, and correctional agencies, but not to the actual commission of delinquent acts.

Age and Delinquency

Age is inversely related to criminality. While 13-17 year olds make up 10% of the population, they account for about 27% of index crime arrests, 17% of all arrests. In contrast, adults 45 and older, who make up 32% of the population only account for 10% of arrests. People age out of crime. Self-reported rates for crimes like assault, gang fighting, robbery, stealing, and trespass decline substantially between the ages of 17 and 23.

The Chronic Juvenile Offender

Delinquency in a Birth Cohort

Findings of the Marvin Wolfgang’s 1972 study (Cohort I) of 9,945 boys born in Philadelphia in 1945, followed through age 18:

1/3 of the cohort had some police contact; 2/3 had none. Race was the most significant predictor of police contact. 54% of Wolfgang’s delinquent youth were repeat offenders, 46% were one-time offenders. The repeaters were categorized as nonchronic and chronic recidivists. 35.6% of all delinquents were nonchronic and thus had been arrested fewer than five but at least one time. The chronic recidivists were 18% of the delinquents, 6% of the sample. The chronic 6% were responsible for 51.9% of all offenses: 71% of the homicides, 73% of the rapes, 82% of the robberies, 69% of the aggravated assaults. About 1/3 of the boys had some police contact, 2/3 had none.

Findings of the Cohort II study of boys born in Philadelphia in 1958, followed through age 18:

The proportion of delinquent youths was larger. But offending patterns were similar. Racial differences were less apparent. But minority youth were still more delinquent. Crime was more serious than in earlier cohort. Chronic delinquents made up 7.5% of the sample (compared with 6.3% of the earlier cohort), 23% of all delinquent offenders (compared with 18% of earlier cohort).

Continuity of Crime - chronic juvenile offenders continue their law-violating careers as adults. The policy implications of these findings are a cause for concern among professionals who feel get-tough on crime legislation is wrong-headed. Efforts to predict individual cases of juvenile offending have proven unreliable.

Delinquency Through the Life Course

Events and experiences encountered as a child matures influence the direction and frequency of antisocial behavior. Stable work and intact marriages help people to desist from crime. Those who had bad experiences with justice system are stigmatized with negative labels and have difficulties as a result in family life and employment. Educational failure encourages delinquency.

Policy Implications

Early identification can promote rather than inhibit careers. Should steps be taken to control the chronic deviant offender? Should we use mandatory incarceration and waiver to adult court?

Juvenile Offenders and Victims: 1997 Update on Violence

Three separate sources report declines in the level of violent crime committed by juveniles between 1994 and 1995 - 17% in the number of homicide arrests involving juveniles, 25% in the number of violent crimes by juveniles reported by surveyed victims, and a 3% decline in the overall juvenile violent crime arrest rate.

The FBI Uniform Crime Reports on juvenile arrests for violent index offenses of murder, rape, robbery and aggravated assault show a 9.2% decline from 1995-1996 in juvenile violent crime arrest rates.

Between 1985 and 1995 nearly 25,000 juveniles were murdered in the US - 2600 in 1995.

1/3 of all murders of juveniles in the US in 1995 occurred in 10 counties. The major cities in these ten counties (beginning with the city in the county with the most murdered juveniles) are Los Angeles, Chicago, New York, Detroit, Dallas, Houston, Phoenix, San Bernardino, Philadelphia, and St. Louis.

For every two youths (ages 0-19) murdered in 1994, one youth committed suicide.

In 1994, the rate of violent victimization of juveniles ages 12 through 17 was nearly 3 times that of adults.

The number of children identified as abused or neglected almost doubled between 1986 and 1993.

Child protective service agencies received 2 million reports of child maltreatment in 1994.

Homicides by juveniles peaked in 1994 -- in 1995 firearm homicides by black males declined.

Half of high school students who carried a weapon (gun, knife, or club) took that weapon to school. 10% of high school students had carried a weapon on school property in the past month. In a year, 1 in 12 high schoolers were threatened or injured with a weapon at school. Fear of school-related violence kept 5% of high schoolers home at least once in the past month.

Victims reported a 25% drop in violent crimes by juveniles in 1995 -- violence by adults was down 18%.

About 1 in 7 juvenile arrests in 1995 was for a crime involving violence or the threat of violence.

After consistently increasing from 1985 to 1994, the juvenile violent crime arrest rate declined in 1995.

Today’s juvenile doesn’t commit more acts of violence than a generation ago, but more juveniles are violent.

Juveniles, even juvenile gang members, are most likely to commit violent crimes after school.

Juvenile arrestees are more likely than adult arrestees to have used a gun in committing a crime.

Study finds a pervasive trend to “crack down on juvenile crime” among State legislatures. In all states, juveniles can be transferred to criminal court -- most have multiple transfer mechanisms. From 1992 through 1995, 41 States passed laws making it easier for juveniles to be tried as adults. The number of cases judicially waived nationwide increased 71% from 1985 through 1994. The proportion of younger juveniles (under age 16) has increased.

Compared with 1985, cases waived in 1994 involved a greater proportion of person offense cases (44% vs. 33%) and drug cases (11% vs. 5%). Cases involving black youth were more likely to be waived than were cases involving white youth. Among white juveniles the cases most likely to be waived were person offenses. Among black juveniles, drug cases surpassed person offense cases in terms of likelihood of waiver.

Juvenile courts handled a growing number of violent cases and were tougher on them than on other cases. Robbery and aggravated assault cases were more common than cases of other serious violence.

California, Ohio, and Texas together held nearly 40% of juveniles in public custody facilities.

Almost 70% of public facility residents were held in facilities operating above their design capacity (overcrowded facilities).

Minority youth were overrepresented in custody facilities given their share of the general population.

In 1995, 32% of the US population ages 10-17 was classified as minorities. Minorities made up 68% of the detention center population in early 1995. Their proportion had risen from 65% of the detention center population in 1991 and 53% in 1983.

Similarly, the minority proportion of juveniles in custody in public long-term institutions (such as training schools), rose from 56% in 1983 to 69% in 1991. In 1995 the minority proportion in these facilities leveled off at 68% after the federal government required states to reduce the number of minorities (The Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act of 1992).

The number of youth under 18 in jails rose 20% from 1994-1995. Most were convicted or awaiting trial as adult criminal offenders.

Siegel & Senna, Chapter 4
Social Structure Theories: Social Disorganization,
Strain, and Cultural Deviance
Study Guide

Siegel and Senna, Chapter 5
SOCIAL PROCESS THEORIES

Social Reaction Theories: Labeling & Conflict